Glucose Sensing Using Hydrogel By Incorporating Phenylboronic Acid Groups

Nadia Baqer Hussein

doi:10.61132/obat.v3i4.1444

Authors

Nadia Baqer Hussein University of Al-Qadisiyah

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.61132/obat.v3i4.1444

Keywords:

Phenylboronic Acid, Glucose, Maam –CO-VPB, Maam, 4-Vinyl Phenylboronic Acid

Abstract

Background: Research of glucose detection is important in diabetes management and biosensor development. Taking into account the large amount of water retention, the biocompatibility of hydrogels makes them ideal candidates for glucose detection. The PBA groups, when grafted to hydrogel matrices, improve the glucose-related response of the hydrogels significantly. Objective: To create a novel PBA (phenylboronic acid) holographic glucose sensor, MAAm-co-4VPBA, for uninterrupted monitoring of blood glucose levels, which demonstrates the first successful glucose measurement in whole blood using PBA sensors. Methods: Methylacrylamide (MAAm) was copolymerized with 4-vinyl phenyl boronic acid (4-VPBA) by means of free radical polymerization employing 1,6-hexanedioldiacrylate (HDODA) as a crosslinker and the photoinitiator 1-hydroxycyclohexyl phenyl ketone. The responsive glucose behavior of the resulting polymer was characterized in terms of swelling dynamics, ex vivo flow tests, and error grid analysis mechanisms. Results: The MAAm-co-4VPBA polymer exhibits reversible glucose binding via PBA-diol interactions that allow complexation at different pH and concentration levels. Modulation of the responsive elements of the microcapsules by hydrophobic PBA and hydrophilic MAAm units yields maximum swelling and shrinking dynamics at 37 trail degrees. The sensor successfully detected glucose in opaque biological fluids, blood plasma, without any interference from antibiotics or other therapeutics or endogenous compounds. Ex vivo tests showed real-time glucose monitoring without hysteresis. Most importantly, this work is the first to report the use of PBA-based sensors in whole blood for measuring glucose.

Conclusion: The MAAm-co-4VPBA holographic sensor possesses outstanding features such as accurate records and strong resistance to chemicals and slow response to detection, confirming its effectiveness in continuous glucose monitoring. Moreover, the ability to operate in the real world enables the aid in clinical diagnosis of diabetes.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

Kaysir MR, Zaman TM, Rassel S, Wang J, and Ban D. Photoacoustic Resonators for Non-Invasive Blood Glucose Detection Through Photoacoustic Spectroscopy: A Systematic Review. Sensors. (2024), 24, 6963.

Filippo DD, Sunstrum FN, Khan JU, and Welsh AW. Non-Invasive Glucose Sensing Technologies and Products: A Comprehensive Review for Researchers and Clinicians. Sensors, (2023), 23, 9130.

Chhiba L, Zaher B, Sidqui M, Marzak A. Glucose Sensing for Diabetes Monitoring: From Invasive to Wearable Device. In book: Innovations in Smart Cities Applications 3rd ed, (2020), 350-364.

Dauttaa M, Alshetaiwia M, Escobarb J, Tseng P. Passive and wireless, implantable glucose sensing with phenylboronic acid hydrogel-interlayer RF resonators. Biosens Bioelectron, (2020), 151: 112004.

Zilgarayeva A, Smailov N, Pavlov S, Mirzakulova S, Alimova M, Kulambayev B. Nurpeissova D. Indonesian Journal of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science. (2024), 34(3), 1489-1498.

Morariu S. Advances in the Design of Phenylboronic Acid-Based Glucose-Sensitive Hydrogels. Polymers, (2023), 15, 582.

Hassan RS, Lee Y. Fully Passive Sensor Coated With Phenylboronic Acid Hydrogel for Continuous Wireless Glucose Monitoring. IEEE Sensors Journal. (2024), 24(9), 12025-12033.

Khan RR, Park J, Hwang T, Seo J, Lee HS. Non-Invasive, Non-Enzymatic Glucose Sensor Using Phenylboronic Acid with Reversible Glucose Interaction. Biochip Journal. (2025).

Sun X, Li N, Zhou B, Zhao W, Liu L, Huang C, Mab L, Kost AR. Non-enzymatic glucose detection based on phenylboronic acid modified optical fibers. Optics Communications, (2018) 416, 32–35.

Zhu H, Shi F, Peng M, Zhang Y, Long S, Liu R, Li J, and Yang Z. Non-Enzymatic Electrochemical Glucose Sensors Based on Metal Oxides and Sulfides: Recent Progress and Perspectives. Chemosensors, (2025), 13, 19.

Liu J, Shen J, Ji S, Zhanga Q, and Zhao W. Research progress of electrode materials for nonenzymatic glucose electrochemical sensors. Sensors & Diagnostics, (2023), 2, 36–45.

Nor NM, Ridhuan NS, and Abdul Razak K. Progress of Enzymatic and Non-Enzymatic Electrochemical Glucose Biosensor Based on Nanomaterial-Modified Electrode. Biosensors (2022), 12, 1136.

Millington RB, Mayes AG, Blyth J, Lowe CR. A holographic sensor for proteases. Anal Chem. (1995),67(23):4229-33.

Mayes AG, Blyth J, Millington RB, Lowe CR. A holographic sensor based on a rationally designed synthetic polymer. J Mol Recognit. (1998),11(1-6):168-74.

Silverstien RM, Webster FX and Kiemle DJ. Spectrometric Identification of Organic Compound. 7th ed., Joun Wiley and Sons, (2005).

Mobula LM, Sarfo FS, Carson KA, Burnham G, Arthur L, Ansong D, Sarfo-Kantanka O, Plange-Rhule J, Ofori-Adjei D. Predictors of glycemic control in type-2 diabetes mellitus: Evidence from a multicenter study in Ghana. Translational Metabolic Syndrome Research, (2018) 1-8.

Shamshirgaran SM, Mamaghanian A, Aliasgarzadeh A, Aiminisani N, Iranparvar-Alamdari M, and Ataie J. Age differences in diabetes-related complications and glycemic control. BMC Endocrine Disorders, (2017), 17, 25.

Nanayakkara N, Ranasinha S, Gadowski AM, Davis WA, Flack JR, Wischer N, Andrikopoulos S, Zoungas S. Age-related differences in glycaemic control, cardiovascular disease risk factors and treatment in patients with type 2 diabetes: a cross-sectional study from the Australian National Diabetes Audit. BMJ Open, (2018), 8, e020677.

Hoare, T. and Pelton, R. "Engineering glucose swelling responses in poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)-based microgels", Macromolecules, (2006), 40(3), 670-678.

Lapeyre, V., Gosse, I., Chevreux, S. and Ravaine, V. "Monodispersed glucose-responsive microgels operating at physiological salinity", Biomacromolecules, (2006),7(12), 3356-3363.

Zha L, Banikb B, and Alexis F. Stimulus responsive nanogels for drug delivery. Soft Matter, (2011), 7, 5908–5916.

Lapeyre V, Gosse I, Chevreux S, and Ravaine V. Monodispersed Glucose-Responsive Microgels Operating at Physiological Salinity. Biomacromolecules, (2006), 7, 3356-3363.

Liu J, Yi X, Zhang J, Yao Y, Panichayupakaranant P, and Chen H. Recent Advances in the Drugs and Glucose-Responsive Drug Delivery Systems for the Treatment of Diabetes: A Systematic Review. Pharmaceutics (2024), 16, 1343.

Kim A, Mujumdar SK, and Siegel RA. Swelling Properties of Hydrogels Containing Phenylboronic Acids. Chemosensors, (2014), 2, 1-12.